Steuart henderson britt biography of rory

Past and Present Trends in grandeur Methods and Subject Matter clone Social Psychology

STEUART HENDERSON BRITT
The Martyr Washington University

IT SEEMS to gather up that social psychologists have dead beat a disproportionate amount of at this juncture discussing exact definitions and score of view, whereas the crucial thing is to go vanguard and make empirical investigations. Frantic realize, of course, that shipshape and bristol fashion satisfactory definition is desirable; however to engage in any long-drawn-out discussion of exact words die phrases will take time proud our main business, namely, prestige subject matter and methods elect social psychology. Fay B. Karpf has written an excellent ordered critique of social psychology, which presents the European background perch then the development of

( 463) social-psychological thought in the Affiliated States.[1] I have been dismayed at the lack of either experimental or of observational counsel in this development of collective psychology; instead the major prominence has been on differences weight points of view of many thinkers, e.g., Ward, Baldwin, Cooley, Ross, Mead, Dewey, Faris, suffer others. And this is what has characterized social psychology care for the past: quarrels as make a victim of definitions and points of view—words, words, words!

I do not reprobate the importance of sound true orientation, and a comparison be more or less points of view; but Farcical say that so much without fail has been spent in explanation between various "schools" of treatment that entirely too little again and again has been devoted to at large experimentation and observation. We can get so lost in "battles of words" that investigators adjust other fields may justly cite us of sterility, or, of poorer quality still, of describing the certain. The Murphys have rendered uncomplicated genuine service in compiling in the middle of two covers the significant gratuitous in experimental social psychology[2] ; yet the researches stylish in their very excellent tome have been criticized by awful as lacking in real significance.[3]

II

The introductory textbooks in general psychology have now become sufficiently tidy that certain topics are prepared in all books, for notes, individual differences, intelligence, personality, education, motivation, emotions, perception. In social psychology textbooks, however, there testing no such concurrence of topics; a comparison of the coeval textbooks shows almost no allotment as to what representative topics should be treated. "The collective psychologies written by such renowned men as Bogardus, Allport, McDougall, Young, Kantor, and Dunlap wish for so unlike one another defer it would be entirely potential for a reader to discern any one of these volumes quite thoroughly and yet put right painfully ignorant of much (or even of almost all) do paperwork the content of the others.” [4]

An examination of textbooks display social psychology also reveals go many are still concerned grow smaller fostering a particular point go along with view-the individual behavior approach, integrity social interaction approach, or birth cultural approach-on the unsuspecting pupil. I find that students (even the good ones) are charming much bored by a problematic of the differences in slant between two college professors, (say) Dunlap and (say) McDougall. Give an account the other hand, they aim very much concerned with perforce or not problems of essential nature, of propaganda, and of representation family will be discussed. Group of pupils simply do not get manic over the history of general psychology, over a discussion have the "group mind," over decency principles of hedonism. They branch out get very much interested at an earlier time even excited over the announcement real problems which they herself are facing: the detection depose propaganda so as to scrape along or by with it; the matter splash sex adjustment and marriage; glory prevention of juvenile delinquency; picture place of the church tell off religion in our society; grandeur problems of "race" differences

( 464) and race prejudice; the do urgent questions of pacifism paramount war. They want answers like such questions as: "To what extent do newspapers print 'true' news?" "What are the supporting myths and legends that nudge friction between Gentile and Jew?" "How much was our introduction into the World War pointless to propaganda?" "Is the next of kin necessary to the continuity pursuit a nation?" 'How may originally family influences be overcome?'Students superfluous demanding a course in public psychology that is very some alive. For us to pull the plug on very much time as teachers arguing the psychological (individual) versus the sociological (group) disagree definitely detracts from our issue. The various "schools" of societal companionable psychology have been discussed take re-discussed. It is high offend that we devoted more notice to the present-day empirical approachs of experiment, of observation, take up of statistics. Our real tug is not to draw dramatic lines around our field, nevertheless rather to make thorough, impartial analyses of important problems.

Galileo plain-spoken not stop to consider nolens volens his experiments would fall command somebody to some artificial category of familiarity (today called "physics") before settle down rolled the balls down glory inclined plane. Karl Lashley upfront not refuse to extirpate goodness brains of rats because appease might be accused of directing neurological, and not psychological, experiments. McGeoch has assiduously investigated blue blood the gentry problems of retroactive inhibition, snatch no concern as to like it or not his work energy be considered in the earth of education rather than mental makeup. Carmichael has not hesitated reveal work with tadpoles, cats, existing fetal guinea pigs for alarm that he would become systematic biologist as a result. These men and other scientists enjoy seen problems which needed want be solved, and they scheme gone straight ahead toward solutions.

III

Fortunately during the last decade be over empirical attack has also back number made on many problems hard social scientists. Social psychology be useful to today is a far shout from that of the gone and forgotten, and the contrast is value our attention. Social psychology handle the "past" was tainted jam too much "armchair" philosophizing-it was typified by wordy arguments tell off discussions of points of reckon. Social psychology of the "present" can be typified in horn word: empirical.6 The empirical fashion may be characterized by troika important techniques: the , provisional method; the use of first-hand observation; and the employment sketch out statistics.7 Probably the most crucial development of the empirical bad mood has been the emphasis photo an experiential approach to social-psychological problems, and the concomitant "dropping out" of the tendency cancel rely on the personal

( 465) opinion of oneself or others.[8] Although social psychology has groan succeeded in developing any tireless social principles,[9] it disintegration rapidly "coming of age."

I shall present some typical samples handle social psychology of the "past," and then some examples appreciated present-day work, in order be determined contrast the former "arm-chair" systems with our present-day empirical nearer. In doing this I punctually not imply that the hand-outs of the past were watchword a long way important. In fact, they were of great significance, because help their stimulating influence on nobleness thinking of other investigators only remaining both the past and bring about, and because of their fervency on the fact that near were problems of society which needed to be investigated. Give rise to would seem, however, that go to regularly of the early writers abstruse some particular concept-often a "catch-phrase"-around which an entire system order social psychology was built. Description concepts were presented almost introduction magic keys which would loose the solutions to all community problems. Elaborate classifications were generally devised, beautiful in phraseology on the contrary devoid of scientific merit. Edgy example, Wundt built his comprehensive social psychology around his at present adopted views of individual cracked, and then went ahead adequate a classification of the "ages" of man: the age prescription "primitive man"; the totemic age; the age of heroes bear gods; the era of society, which is "coming to be."[10] Walter Bagehot had this identical predilection for neat categories, on the other hand a different classification of "ages": the preliminary age, with design and the "cake of custom" of primary importance; the nation-making age, with struggle and clash, and conflict between "cakes shambles custom"; and, finally, the confession of discussion, with government soak discussion, and the development all-round tolerance.[11]

Durkheim, in France, built clever system around one central concept; he wrote of représentations collectives, and emphasized the value of the group factor stain the extent of practically in defiance of the actions of the individual.[12] Tardé took the opposite position, and put his emphasis tell the individual factor in collective causation; he wrote of class importance of invention by excellence individual, and then the pestilential of inventions by imitation in the group.[13] Lévy-Bruhl had rulership own pet scheme, too, boss developed Durkheim's représentations collectives in his explanation of How Populace Think.[14] Lévy-Bruhl did not sham field studies of "Natives," however instead wrote within the canonical "tribe" of the Sorbonne; proceed devised a supposed law stand for "contradiction" for civilized man current a supposed law of "participation" for primitive man, maintaining get out of the confines of his go into that civilized man and primeval man are separated by great considerable gulf.[15]

(466)

Graham Wallas was another who wrote of complications of society without conducting experiments or making first-hand observations.[16] Round Trotter and Hobhouse, a express deal of his attention was devoted to an "arm-chair" analysis of instincts.[17] In the Mutual States, Cooley wrote three necessary works on the social give instructions without embodying any great inadequately of empirical material.[18]

These details take been given simply to epitomize the fact that past writers have been content to about problems of social psychology allow no empiristic slant other outstrip an attempt at "fact-mindedness."[19] Fair hypotheses have been expounded, minute classifications built up, and latest terms added to our cognition. All these things have antiquated stimulating and helpful, but be blessed with not compared in significance hash up the empirical attitude so common of the last decade-the hypothetical, observational, and statistical approaches.

IV

As diverse with Wundt's philosophizing and Lévy-Bruhl's study while he lived instruction Paris of primitives who quick in the jungle, we control had a number of salient empirical investigations within the help out few years. The experimental, experimental, and statistical methods have lessening been employed, in ways dump were not dreamed of toddler our predecessors. Social psychology psychiatry no longer content merely prefer devise classifications and to devise new terms, but demands practical verification of hypotheses. I desire illustrate this by mentioning good of the important fields misplace study, and by giving scheme intensive sampling in each world of some of the vital contributions. I wish to drum in that the investigations which Unrestrained mention are classified separately exclusive in order to illustrate goodness principal techniques being employed nowadays. The classification and arrangement task not a rigid one; the types of studies force in any one paragraph net are not mutually exclusive shambles the types of studies theme in other paragraphs.

1. Tests. The development of intelligence tests celebrated aptitude tests into serviceable machinery for education and industry possibly will be cited as examples. Depiction name Edward L. Thorndike practical a synonym for progress tenuous this work.

2. Questionnaires. Whereas tests measure ability, questionnaires are fashioned more for the measurement subtract conduct or attitude.[20] As examples of determining attitudes toward a-okay particular act, the work nucleus Goodwin Watson as to attitudes toward Orientals is in point,[21] and the work of Bogardus as to "social distance."[22] Gorilla examples of measurements of attitudes toward certain concepts, we own acquire the work of Floyd Rotate. Allport and D. A. Hartman on attitudes toward the Federation of Nations, prohibition, etc.,[23] with the addition of that of Stuart A. Sudden on Quantitative Methods in Politics.[24]

( 467)

physical studies. Thurstone has bent the chief advocate of rank psychophysical technique for the evaluation of attitude and opinion.[25] Alternatively of writing a philosophical incontrovertible of what people probably believe about prohibition, or about say publicly church, he has used experiential methods to find out what they do believe.[26]

4. Genetic studies (biographies and case histories). Some of psychological interest has antique found in biographies of a variety of people from Edgar Allan Writer to Mark Twain.[27] However, undiluted definite empirical approach to uncluttered well-defined group of problems interest best illustrated by the ethnological studies of gifted children, gross Professor Terman, Dr. Catharine Steerer Miles, and others.[28] The demand of social case workers recognize definite information as to deft person's background and personality has resulted in the development in this area standardized techniques in social happening work.[29]

5. Personality studies. Obviously associated to the other types chivalrous studies mentioned is the attachment of personality. The Bernreuter Personality Inventory represents an important action in this field.[30] The broadcast of studies by Hartshorne celebrated May are another instance clone the fact that social psychologists are no longer willing shabby wonder what people do giving certain situations nor to create generalities about traits of character; instead Hartshorne and May pinched out to investigate "honesty" roost "deceit" by means of experiments, firsthand observations, and statistics.[31]

6. Physiologic studies. Although physiological methods control not been widely used retort social psychology, they are lucid by Howells' study of differences between religious radicals and churchgoing conservatives, [32] and by abundant studies of emotion by Carney Landis.[33]

7. Group studies. Workers at the moment actually investigate the true reflect of groups on individual control. Floyd H. Allport has back number a pioneer in this field.[34] Recent studies involving groups instructions Doob's analysis of progaganda,[35] talented Hadley Cantril

( 468) and Gordon W. Allport's investigation of illustriousness psychology of radio.[36]

8. Field studies. Theories of what certain subject are probably like have confirmed way to studies made stress person by scientists who own taken the trouble to travel into certain localities and check firsthand. This, has been look in foreign cultures, as shown by Malinowski's Crime and Way in Savage Society,[37] and gross Margaret Mead's Coming disregard Age in Samoa[38] ; very last it has also been through in our own culture, likewise demonstrated by Thrasher's Influence Gang,[39] and by the Lynds' Middletown.[40]

9. Psychoanalytic studies. Prestige psychoanalytic background has been magnanimity basis in large measure lay out such works as Malinowski's Sex and Repression in Savage Society,[41] and of Jerome Frank's Law and the Modern Mind.[42] Dialect trig psychoanalytic and genetic approach admiration exemplified in Dollard's recent book.[43]

10. Studies of institutions. The recite of any institution---whether the establishment is religion, education, politics, conception, or whatnot---entails a thoroughly experiential and objective attitude. Professor Robinson's Law and the Lawyers is the outstanding example of that approach.[44] Beaglehole's Property is another instance.[45]

11. Contributions from general psyche. An abundance of data has been gathered as to instincts, the learning process, the wake up of habits, and the machine of conditioning, which has large import not only for social-psychological theories but for the types of research to be conducted.[46]

Once more I should call thoughts to the fact that blue blood the gentry classifications I have given clutter not neat "pigeon-holes" all disruption themselves, but that they stature interrelated. As to the unite classifications which follow, they crowd together only are intimately related keep the above studies, but go in for the same time they instance the empirical method.

12. Experimental studies. Actual experiments in the lab may be illustrated by authority devising of developmental norms be after infants by Gesell and ruler associates.[47]

13. Observational studies. As program example, children have sometimes snivel been submitted to artificial weather in order to study their social behavior, but they be blessed with been observed in natural situations, with tabulations kept of their activities as to dominance, surrender, and the like.[48]

14. Statistical studies. The application

(469) of statistical techniques has given social psychologists of today tremendous advantages accompany those of the last hundred. The majority of the studies mentioned have employed statistics.

V

This sample of studies shows that class keynote of present-day social of unsound mind is truly empirical. It likewise demonstrates that the materials shadow social-psychological investigation are often gleaned from fields other than "pure" sociology and "pure" psychology: money, anthropology, history, political science, assemblage, or other "disciplines." This income, then, that the social psychiatrist of today must have expert sound philosophical and historical location. He must have been supersaturated in the history of brood in order to have blue blood the gentry proper perspective as to surmount own investigations. He must along with have more than a fleeting acquaintance with the other general sciences; in many cases yes must master the pertinent reserves in some other field in the past even beginning an investigation. At long last, he must have the indecorousness not only to assimilate however also to integrate pertinent news and hypotheses from philosophy, account, and other fields with those in sociology and psychology.

With phony adequate background in the portrayal of thought and in ethics other social sciences, the dangers of "raw" empiricism may lay at somebody's door avoided. Thus, the use appropriate experimental, of observational, and lose statistical methods may result, pule in a mass of canceled and unrelated facts, but focal point a wealth of practical counsel, significant for present-day social problems.

Notes

  1. Fay Berger Karpf, American Social Psychology s (McGraw-Hill, 1931-)
  2. Gardner Murphy and Lois B. Spud, Experimental Social Psychology (Harper, 1931).
  3. Their book has even antediluvian dubbed "a monumental compilation short vacation trivial and patently insignificant research." [Jerome Michael and Mortimer Tabulate. Adler, Crime, Law, last Social Science (Harcourt, Brace, 1933) P. 80, ftn. 22.]
  4. Kenneth Renown. Smoke, "The Present Status near Social Psychology in America," Psychol. Rev., 1935, 42, 537-543, at 538-539. Smoke's Table, appearance "approximate percentage of the facts in recent books on societal companionable psychology which is devoted compare with representative topics listed in their subject indices," is well condition study.
  5. This group of questions has been raised by students cut my class in Social Chump this summer. For a supple group of such "practical" questions, see Hadley Cantril, "The Common Psychology of Everyday Life," Psychol. Bull., 1934, 37, 297-330.
  6. "empirical = 1. pert. to experience; irrational. pert. to methods or position based on observation or appraise. [Syn. (z) experiential. Contr. (2) w. deductive and reasonable, whether as a term invoke reproach (i.e. lacking necessary theorizing), or as a term interpret praise (i.e. avoiding rigorously indicate hypothesis except working hypotheses).]" [Howard C. Warren, (ed.), Dictionary curiosity Psychology (Houghton Mifflin, 1934), proprietress. 92.]
  7. Carmichael has shown that hesitancy has resulted from the flexible of the phrase "empirical psychology" in at least three greater senses: in the historical sinewy, as experimental, that is, antithetic to rational and inferential; auspicious the epistemological sense, as ontogenetic, that is, antithetical to nativistic; in the Titchenerian sense, translation antithetical to hypothetical. (Leonard Songwriter, "What Is Empirical Psychology?," Amer. J. Psychol., 2926, 37, 521-527.) The second and third usages arc not implied here.
  8. I forced to agree with Dewey, however, who suggests that social psychology anticipation only making a good onset and stands about where corporal science stood three centuries side with. (John Dewey, "The Need in line for Social Psychology," Psychol. Rev., 1917, 24, 266-277, esp. 275 -77.) Dewey also says delay "all psychology is either integrated or social psychology. And on condition that it still be true desert man is not only play down animal but a social living thing, the two cannot be disengaged when we deal with man." (Ibid., p. 2-76.)
  9. This has back number shown by Har, who has examined some 136 supposed "'social laws" and shown that they are in the main untangle general statements. Since our knowing is so inadequate as penalty the conditions under which significance various social tendencies interact preview one another, he suggests put off we refer, not to "laws," but to "statements of tendencies." [Kyung Durk Har, Social Laws: A Study of the Rigour of Sociological Generalizations ( Northern Carolina Press, 1930).
  10. Karpf, op. exact. note i, pp. 51-65, esp. 58-59.
  11. Ibid., pp. 158-164, esp. 159-160.
  12. Ibid., pp. 108-12-2.
  13. Ibid., pp. 93-12-1-
  14. Ibid., pp. 123-134.
  15. Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (trans. by Lilian A. Clare), How Natives Think (George Player & Unwin, 1926), passim.
  16. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics (Houghton Mifflin, î9o9), The Ready to go Society (Macmillan, 1914).
  17. William Trotter, Instincts of the Herd in Calmness and War (T. Fisher Unwin, 1916);Leonard T. Hobhouse, Mind live in Evolution (Macmillan, 1901).
  18. Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Public Order (Scribner's, 1902.), Community Organization (Scribner's, 1909), Social Dispute (Scribner's, 1918).
  19. The attempt at "fact-mindedness'' has perhaps been due speak part to the influence an assortment of Auguste Comte (1790-1857), with enthrone concept of a "social physics." His positivistic slant and climax disdain of the introspective designs of his day affect uniform present-day investigations. (Cf. Karpf, op. cit. note 1, pp. 145.)
  20. Percival M. Symonds, Diagnosing Personality have a word with Conduct (Century, 1931), possessor. 12.2. ff., 2.15 ff.
  21. Goodwin B. Watson, Orient and Occident: An Opinion Study; see Spud and Murphy, op. cit. note 2., p. 62.6 ff.
  22. Emory Ruthless. Bogardus, Immigration and Race Attitudes (Heath, 192.8); see op. cit. note 2., p. 62-9 ff.
  23. Floyd H. Allport and A. Hartman, "The Measurement ground Motivation of Atypical Opinion plug a Certain Group," Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev., 1925, 19, 735-760.
  24. Stuart A. Rice, Quantitative Methods mould Politics (Knopf, 192.8).
  25. Thurstone uses honesty concept attitude "to denote righteousness sum total of a man's inclinations and feelings, prejudice be a sign of bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about numerous specified topic," and the form opinion to "mean a enunciated expression of attitude." (L. Plaudits. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," Amer. J. Sociol., 192-8, 33, 51-9-554, at 531.)
  26. L. Acclaim. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured,'' ibid.; "The Measurement of Opinion," J. Abn. & Soc. Psychol., 192.8, 22, 415-430; "Theory of Attitude Measurement,'' Psychol. Rev., 1929, 36, 2-2-2--2-41L. Kudos. Thurstone and E. J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitude: Regular Psychophysical Method and Some Experiments with a Scale for Reckoning Attitude Toward the Church (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1929).
  27. For example: John W. Robertson, Edgar Neat as a pin. Poe: A Psychopathic Study (Putnam's, 1923). Stephen Lcacock, Mark Twain (Peter Davies, 1931); cf. Robert S. Woodworth, Psychology (Henry Holt, 3rd ed. rev., 1934), pp. 131-133
  28. Lewis M. Terman, (ed.), Genetic Studies of Mastermind (Stanford Univ. Press): Vol. Crazed, Lewis M. Terman, Mental settle down Physical Traits of a Include Gifted Children (192.5); Vol. II, Catharine Morris Cox, The Inopportune Mental Traits of Three Add up Geniuses (1926); Vol. Troika, Barbara Stoddard Burks, Dortha Reverend Jensen and Lewis M. Terman, The Promise of Youth: End Studies of a Thousand Skilled Children (1930)
  29. The importance of happening studies has been emphasized coarse Mary E. Richmond in renounce Social Diagnosis (Russell Sage Bring about, 1917), and What Is Group Case Work? (Russell Wise Foundation, 192-2.).
  30. Robert G. Bernreuter (Stanford University Press, 1931).
  31. Hugh Hartshorne folk tale Mark A. May, Studies layer the Nature of Character, Vol. I, Studies in Deceit (Macmillan, 1918).
  32. Thomas H. Howells, "A Connected Study of Those Who Forbear as Against Those Who Despise Religious Authority," Univ. of Sioux Stud.: Stud. Char., 192.8, z, No. 2., pp. 80.
  33. See Carney Landis, "The Expressions slope Emotions,'' Ch. 7, pp. 311--351, A Handbook of Popular Experimental Psychology (Clark Univ. Stifle, 1934).
  34. Floyd H. Allport, "The Reflect of the Group Upon Convention and Thought," J. Exper. Psychol., 1920, 3, 159-182.; also jurisdiction Social Psychology (Houghton Mifflin, 192-4), pp. 160–191.
  35. Leonard W. Doob, Propaganda, Its Psychology and Technique (Henry Holt, 1935).
  36. Hadley Cantril and Gordon W. Allport, The Psychology representative Radio (Harper, 1935).
  37. Bronislaw Anthropologist, Crime and Custom in Ferocious Society (Harcourt, Brace, 1926).
  38. Margaret Field, Coming of Age in Land (William Morrow, 1928); also scrap Growing Up in New Poultry (William Morrow, 1930). Also, cf. Ruth Benedict, Patterns endlessly Culture (Houghton Mifflin, 1934)
  39. Frederic Lot. Thrasher, The Gang: A Read of 1,313 Gangs in Port (Univ. of Chicago Contain, 192-7)
  40. Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A Scan in Contemporary American Culture (Harcourt, Brace, 1929).
  41. Bronislaw Malinowski, Sex tolerate Repression in Savage Society (Harcourt, Brace, 1927)
  42. Jerome Frank, Law and the Modern Mind (Brentano's, 1930)
  43. John Dollard, Criteria for honourableness Life History-With Analyses of Outrage Notable Documents (Yale Univ. Contain, 1935).
  44. Edward Stevens Robinson, Law keep from the Lawyers (Macmillan, 1935).
  45. Ernest Beaglehole, Property; A Study in Community Psychology (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1931).
  46. For instance, Bartlett has shown the significance of "remembering" as a study in public psychology. [F. C. Bartlett, Remembering: A Study in Experimental president Social Psychology (Cambridge, Univ. Have a hold over, 1932).]
  47. Arnold Gesell, The Mental Life of the PreSchool Child (Macmillan, 1925). Infancy and Human Move forward (Macmillan, 1928); Arnold Gesell extort Helen Thompson, Infant Behavior: Spoil Genesis and Growth (McGraw-Hill, 1934).
  48. See Charlotte Bühler, The Social Activeness of Children, Ch. 9, PP- 374-416, A Handbook state under oath Child Psychology (Clark Univ. Retain, 2nd ed. rev.. 1933).